模擬遊戲有許多種 , 像是ARMA 或 FSX模擬飛行軟體 , 這些軟體所模擬出的擬真程度非常的高 , 甚至可以成為部份職業的訓練軟體 , 然而對於一般人來說 , 這些可能只是個遊戲 , 大部分的人一開始玩模擬遊戲肯定是因為軟體的真實性 , 大部分的人玩一陣子後便失去興趣不再接觸了 , 為甚麼呢?
舉個ARMA的例子來說好了 , 在ARMA裡面可以使用自己的腳色去開潛艇到飛機 , 在槍戰方面也是動作多樣化 , 甚至出擊還要花很多時間在簡報 , 好玩的地方就是全部都是玩家親自扮演 , 從指揮官到後勤全部都是玩家處理 , 而非AI處理 , 從任務開始到結束可能要10~20人左右才能完成 , 完成後的成就感非凡.
除了都是玩家處理外 , 還有知識學習 , 正因為擬真 , 所以才要學習很多知識才能完成一件事情 , 像是開飛機 , 你必須要學會飛航知識 , 才能飛得很好 , 沒錯! 關鍵就是學習到新知識 , 學習擔任各種角色 , 體驗各種任務 .
有些遊戲正因為速食 , 簡單輕鬆 , 沒有東西可以學才玩不久 , 最後只能在暑假拼命叫"好無聊喔~" , 而複雜的遊戲上手難 , 不過只要學會基本知識 , 就可以玩得更久 , 因為你還可以建立人事後勤 , 甚至分門別類的合作!
2015年8月26日 星期三
2015年8月25日 星期二
五邊飛行
五邊飛行是飛行員一課重要的訓練,其主要是圍著機場進行,從五邊飛行中,飛行員可以練習到起飛,爬升,爬升轉向,定向,保持高度平飛,下降,下降轉向,降落。所以初學者很適合進行五邊飛行的練習,從而提高自己對飛機的控制。
- "Upwind(離場邊)":當飛行員起飛後立即會進入
- "Upwind(離場邊)",然後保持跑道航向360爬升至152m,左轉90度
- "Crosswind(側風邊)":繼續爬升並在航向090,到達304m向左轉90
- "Downwind(下風邊)":在此時你應該在304m並保持高度(正負15m),航向為180並和跑道成一條平行線,反方向於離場跑道。
- "Base(底線)":這時已在下降階段,航向270,進場速度,再左轉90度
- "Final(最後進場邊)":此時你應該很接近跑道,並準備來一個安全的著陸。
2015年8月24日 星期一
起飛時/剛起飛時 , 為何飛機會偏左或偏右?
一般剛開始玩Warthunder的朋友都會遇到小型螺旋槳飛機在"地面加速滑行／起飛／離地"後飛機不能筆直線前進，而是不斷偏左或偏右的問題。正是因為Warthunder做出了飛機空氣動力學的效應影響所致 .
螺旋槳滑流是螺旋槳旋轉時，槳葉撥動空氣，一方面使空氣向後流動，另一方面又使空氣順著螺旋槳旋轉方向繞著機體扭轉流動，這種由於螺旋槳的作用使氣流加速和扭轉叫螺旋槳的滑流。
當氣流打在左面垂直舵上 , 會造成偏右力矩 , 導致機首向左偏移 . 當引擎右轉時 , 除了氣流影響外 , 加上自身扭力 , 則造成機身向右滾轉 .
螺旋槳效應P-Factor是螺旋槳飛機在"大迎角＋低速＋大功率"飛行時發生的測滑現象。
左右兩側的螺旋槳葉相對於風的攻角不同 , 左側的攻角較小產生的推力相對小一些 , 右側的攻角較大產生的推力就大 , 於是造成機首向左偏向 .
螺旋槳滑流是螺旋槳旋轉時，槳葉撥動空氣，一方面使空氣向後流動，另一方面又使空氣順著螺旋槳旋轉方向繞著機體扭轉流動，這種由於螺旋槳的作用使氣流加速和扭轉叫螺旋槳的滑流。
螺旋槳效應P-Factor是螺旋槳飛機在"大迎角＋低速＋大功率"飛行時發生的測滑現象。
左右兩側的螺旋槳葉相對於風的攻角不同 , 左側的攻角較小產生的推力相對小一些 , 右側的攻角較大產生的推力就大 , 於是造成機首向左偏向 .
2015年8月23日 星期日
無線電與術語
無線電規則:
戰場之中 , 由於訊息量龐大 , 所以通訊中的字裡行間必須簡短而有力 , 句句是重點!
- 頻道中有人在通話時 , 請勿插話 . 靜待通話結束 , 再行呼叫 .
- 呼叫時先喊他人呼號 , 再報自己呼號 , 讓大家清楚是誰在叫誰 . 最後才是通話內容 .
- 發問或回答請用明確的語句與答案 , 最後說"over!"告訴大家發話完畢.
- 如有必要通話 , 通話者須報"間隔" , 通話者聽到後回答"間隔請說" , 插話者才開始發話.
呼號:
無線電使用必須簡短有力，才不會佔用無線電而貽誤戰機，為了促進攻擊與防守的效率，所以才會有術語及呼號的產生。讓我們來看看呼號的命名吧。首先：
要有兩個到三個音節的呼號，必須要清晰好念。避免與術語、數字、英文等混淆。
- 比較好的呼號範例：Saga、Monkey 、Clow 、Bear。
- 比較不好的呼號：小情人、Asdyf 、RX-78。
假設你不知道怎麼幫自己弄呼號的話，你的朋友可能會替你取一些呼號，不能拒絕，拒絕的話，你會獲得更難聽的呼號。你可能會因為你的外表或曾經的事蹟而獲得，例如：Monkey。
回報:
今天的網路空戰遊戲已經達到一定程度的擬真，有效的友軍通訊可以增進戰術優勢。發話時，保持心情平靜，避免大聲說話，以至於隊友耳朵爆掉。所有的話都必須想好再說，以免有太多的冗贅字與佔用頻道。
例句：“Luwei, Monkey. Tally one bogey,nine o’clock, far,low, visual!” 這是標準兼漂亮的簡語範例，告訴我們經由簡語可以在這麼少字的狀況下，傳遞這麼多的訊息。這個簡語翻譯起來是這樣的：
「Luwei，這是 Monkey。我目視不明機九點鐘方向，遠，低位，也同時目視你。」
基本術語:
- ALPHA CHECK:要求僚機報出某一點對他的方位距離，通常是BLIND後，確定空間位置歸隊使用。
- BUG OUT:項安全空域機動，並撤向安全區域。
- BANDIT:已知具有敵意的目標。
- BELLY CHECK:檢查機腹，低六點是否有敵機。
- BINGO:油料剩下不多。
- BOGEY : 不明機。
- Break:轉(最大性能急轉彎)。
- Blow Through:指示或通知,將會在與目標機遭遇後,繼續往前飛而不轉向。
- Bomb Jet:丟炸彈。
- CLOSING:接近敵機/接觸/目標中。
- CLEARED:要求被許可。CLEARED HOT:准許施放武器(准許開火)。
- CONTACT:接觸。需搭配方位，距離，高度已完成一個完整的接觸報告。
- COVER:要求僚機進入掩護位置。
- COMMITED/COMMIT:預計接戰/攔截。
- DELAY NINETY LEFT:左轉九十度。
- DEFENSE:緊急防禦。
- DRAG/DRAGGING:誘使敵機跟隨，由友機潛行獵殺的戰術。
- EXTEND:暫時離開接戰空域. 通常是為了獲得更好的速度或空間而做的動作。
- FEET WET/DRY:飛出海岸/線飛入陸地。
- FENCE CHECK/FENCE IN/FENCE OUT:入侵敵境前裝備檢查/選定好適用武裝/離開敵境時關好保險。
- Furball:混戰。
- GORILLA:相當大數量的不明機編隊。
- HOLDING HANDS:目視編隊。Hook Turn:迴轉180度。
- HOSTILE:敵機，最具威脅的敵機稱呼。
- SHOOTER:負責開火的飛機。
- RTB:返回基地。
- TALLY：目視敵機。反字詞為：“NO JOY”。
- TUMBLEWEED：表示低 SA 狀態，無目視敵、友機。並要求資訊。
- Turn circle:轉一圈。
- Turn radius:轉半圈。
- Tally:目視 ex:Tally1, Tally2 , Tally3。
- VISUAL：目視友機。反義詞為：“BLIND”。
- Keep Turn :持續轉。
- Slight Turn :輕輕轉。
- SPING:螺旋。(螺旋解出來叫改出)
為了避免ABCD在通訊中的誤解 , 所以我們會用特定詞語來代替。
- A Alfa
- B Bravo
- C Charlie
- D Delta
- E Echo
- F Foxtrot
- G Golf
- H Hotel
- I India
- J Juliett
- K Kilo
- L Lima
- M Mike
- N November
- O Oscar
- P Papa
- Q Quebec
- R Romeo
- S Sierra
- T Tango
- U Uniform
- V Victor
- W Whiskey
- X X-ray
- Y Yankee
- Z Zulu
飛狐空軍聯隊
空軍學院要帶給學員的東西，不是擊落數字的榮耀，更不是要創造王牌飛行員。 我們的訓練，除了讓學員具有基本的飛行與戰鬥操作技術，更要讓學員體認到空戰不是一對一的單打獨鬥，更不可能是一以擋百的空戰無雙。起飛、落地、編隊、通訊… 這些在遊戲當中經常被忽略或簡單帶過的項目，反而是學員在空軍學院的學習重點。也唯有透過這些課目的不斷重複，學員才能真正體會紀律兩個字的重要性。
紀律，不代表權威，而是每位成員謹守份際，在對的時間做對的事情。 教練與學員能夠彼此配合，訓練效果才會顯著。飛行訓練當中，教練指示，學員照做；訓練結束之後，學員質疑，教練解惑。依照學院的課程安排，循序漸進，直到結業。表現優異的學員，也可能被學院邀請成為教練。
以下為空軍學院的課目：
基本組：飛行基本操控、飛行編隊
戰鬥組：基本攻防(BFM)戰術訓練、空戰操作(ACM)戰術訓練、對地戰術訓練報名接受課程之前， 學員應該要有一個飛行呼號(Callsign)，呼號必須是兩或三個音節，清楚好念的英文字彙，不能用字母或數字。 以下是呼號命名的三項原則：
1. 如果你還沒有自己的呼號，你的『好友』會幫你取一個
2. 你可能不會喜歡這個呼號...
3. 如果你對於第一與第二項原則靠北太多，你會得到一個你更不喜歡的新呼號…
所以，呼號到底怎麼來的呢？有時是做了一些蠢事，或者與你的名字有相當的聯想；有時候則是用外表相符的呼號。等你贏得大夥兒的敬重時，別人就會幫你取一個比較威的呼號。
所以，呼號到底怎麼來的呢？有時是做了一些蠢事，或者與你的名字有相當的聯想；有時候則是用外表相符的呼號。等你贏得大夥兒的敬重時，別人就會幫你取一個比較威的呼號。
請認清一件事情， 參加空軍學院，表示您認同我們以團隊為優先、以紀律為準則的運作方式。 學院的理念是教學從嚴、審核從寬，我們在訓練當中可能會對學員不假辭色，但是我們對有心學習的成果絕不忽視。請萬萬不要參加訓練之後，才又抱怨教練在過程當中態度兇惡，認為這只是個遊戲，沒有必要如此… 學院的課程沒有進度壓力，一切依照學員的空閒時間(以及教練的空閒時間)進行進度，因此學員若有任何倦怠產生，可以選擇暫緩學習以調整心情，待調適之後繼續出發。
但是，雖然空軍學院不會向學員追討進度，學員不應當被動到老是等教練問說什麼時候要上課。
學院的教練完全是運用個人的時間，分毫不取在幫學員上課，但是教練不是保姆，更不應該像是媽媽追著孩子餵飯吃。已經報名的學員，請利用論壇或者任何簡訊系統主動與教練協商上課時間。如因生活考量需停課一段時間，也該出個聲音讓教練們知道。如果您連續三個月都沒有主動聯絡，那學院就會主動將您先移出受訓名單了。
最後， 由於英文是飛行的母語，為了獲得最直接的教學效果，學習過程當中會有許多英文詞彙與術語。學員應當積極克服任何可能的語言障礙，教練在評斷學員學習成果時，並不會對此有所寬容。
以上幾點，在您仔細考慮，都是可以配合或者能夠克服的，且不會影響本身學業工作，就請您在此留言報名。
飛狐空軍聯隊
紀律，不代表權威，而是每位成員謹守份際，在對的時間做對的事情。 教練與學員能夠彼此配合，訓練效果才會顯著。飛行訓練當中，教練指示，學員照做；訓練結束之後，學員質疑，教練解惑。依照學院的課程安排，循序漸進，直到結業。表現優異的學員，也可能被學院邀請成為教練。
以下為空軍學院的課目：
基本組：飛行基本操控、飛行編隊
戰鬥組：基本攻防(BFM)戰術訓練、空戰操作(ACM)戰術訓練、對地戰術訓練報名接受課程之前， 學員應該要有一個飛行呼號(Callsign)，呼號必須是兩或三個音節，清楚好念的英文字彙，不能用字母或數字。 以下是呼號命名的三項原則：
1. 如果你還沒有自己的呼號，你的『好友』會幫你取一個
2. 你可能不會喜歡這個呼號...
3. 如果你對於第一與第二項原則靠北太多，你會得到一個你更不喜歡的新呼號…
所以，呼號到底怎麼來的呢？有時是做了一些蠢事，或者與你的名字有相當的聯想；有時候則是用外表相符的呼號。等你贏得大夥兒的敬重時，別人就會幫你取一個比較威的呼號。
所以，呼號到底怎麼來的呢？有時是做了一些蠢事，或者與你的名字有相當的聯想；有時候則是用外表相符的呼號。等你贏得大夥兒的敬重時，別人就會幫你取一個比較威的呼號。
請認清一件事情， 參加空軍學院，表示您認同我們以團隊為優先、以紀律為準則的運作方式。 學院的理念是教學從嚴、審核從寬，我們在訓練當中可能會對學員不假辭色，但是我們對有心學習的成果絕不忽視。請萬萬不要參加訓練之後，才又抱怨教練在過程當中態度兇惡，認為這只是個遊戲，沒有必要如此… 學院的課程沒有進度壓力，一切依照學員的空閒時間(以及教練的空閒時間)進行進度，因此學員若有任何倦怠產生，可以選擇暫緩學習以調整心情，待調適之後繼續出發。
但是，雖然空軍學院不會向學員追討進度，學員不應當被動到老是等教練問說什麼時候要上課。
學院的教練完全是運用個人的時間，分毫不取在幫學員上課，但是教練不是保姆，更不應該像是媽媽追著孩子餵飯吃。已經報名的學員，請利用論壇或者任何簡訊系統主動與教練協商上課時間。如因生活考量需停課一段時間，也該出個聲音讓教練們知道。如果您連續三個月都沒有主動聯絡，那學院就會主動將您先移出受訓名單了。
最後， 由於英文是飛行的母語，為了獲得最直接的教學效果，學習過程當中會有許多英文詞彙與術語。學員應當積極克服任何可能的語言障礙，教練在評斷學員學習成果時，並不會對此有所寬容。
以上幾點，在您仔細考慮，都是可以配合或者能夠克服的，且不會影響本身學業工作，就請您在此留言報名。
飛狐空軍聯隊
BFM的重要性
在德國BF109的高速一擊脫離戰術令世界各國空軍大為驚艷 , 在西班牙內戰時 , BF109攻擊後高速脫離 , 使得敵人幾乎沒有機會攻擊 . 使得後來各國空軍開始仿效德軍的戰術 .
這種戰術固然有效 , 然而戰爭使科技大幅進步 , 各國空軍戰機的研發猶如賽馬一般的競賽 , 各國之間的機種性能互有勝負 , 在新舊機種之間的摩擦之下 , 戰術千變萬化 , 不可能再像西班牙內戰一樣只用同種戰術 , 纏鬥因此成為最後防衛手段 , 也就是刺刀戰了.
不論是二對一還是三對二 , 最常出現的戰術就是三明治戰術 , 前頭的友機防禦同時是否也能做好引誘機的工作 , 與個人的BFM技能最有關係! 生死之間 , 飛行員的生與死影響戰局的程度很高~ 所以你說重要還是不重要呢?
2015年8月10日 星期一
美軍ACM綱要 (翻譯中)
4.10. Air Combat Maneuvers (ACM)
ACM normally involves coordinated maneuvering between two fighters employing BFM to kill, defend or separate from one or more bandits in a visual merge. The engaged phase can be the outcome of the intercept phase or an undetected bandit entry, and is the highest risk phase of an air-to-air engagement. Distinct roles, or an "ACM Contract," must be briefed and established between the two fighters prior to any flight with the potential for ACBT in order to assure effective ACM. This contract defines "engaged" and "supporting" roles. Disciplined execution of these roles is critical for survivability and lethality. Any break down in the established "ACM Contract" can lead to undesirable and disastrous outcomes! (i.e. Midair).
4.10.1. ACM Objectives
· Develop proficiency in two-ship coordinated maneuvering.
· Teach specific engaged and supporting fighter roles in a visual fight.
· Develop enhanced situation awareness.
An F-16 is capable of rapid kills from an offensive start. Consequently, the role of the supporting fighter is not the same when his element mate is offensive as when the other F-16 is defensive. This adjustment in priorities resulting from the other F-16's positional advantage/disadvantage requires focused, concentrated training in the visual environment. There are four cornerstones to effective element employment: communications, formation integrity, flight discipline, and weapons employment.
4.10.2. Communications
Calm, clear, and concise communications are vital for effective element employment. Each pilot must firmly understand MCM 3-1, Vol I brevity terms, unit standard terminology, and be able to use the correct terms at the correct moment in a fight. If the situation cannot be addressed using MCM 3-1 brevity or unit standard phrasing, use clear text to accurately describe your intentions or maneuvers. Proficiency in one’s communications skill is gained only by daily practice and constant critique. The time to start improving your comm is not after the first "Break right" call. The planned cadence, comm procedures, and brevity terms that are expect to be used during the flight should be reviewed in the flight briefing to enhance their effectiveness. Shortening communications too much is a bad habit that fighter pilots need to avoid. Nonstandard radio terminology (i.e. lack of proper call sign), and excessive verbiage can cause confusion and misinterpretation at a critical time. This could result be fatal. Use full call signs when beginning radio transmissions to gain the attention of flight members requiring the information you have
and allowing noninvolved flights to "tune out" your transmission. All missions (not just air-to-air) should focus on communications discipline!
As part of a fighting team, you will see situations develop quickly as you maneuver. As the bandit maneuvers you will have to communicate what you see in the most efficient way. As the wingman, you may have to tell lead what to do if you have tally and he doesn't. If your information isn't critical, your radio call should be descriptive and lead will use it to make decisions while maintaining control of the flight. When the flight is definitely threatened, a directive transmission is called for.
4.10.2.1. Directive Transmissions
A directive call is required when a threat warrants an immediate reaction for survival. Directive radio transmissions must be prefaced by the call sign of the aircraft being addressed, i.e., "Viper One, break right!" After making the directive transmission "Viper One, break right," pause, look and see if lead is doing what was directed. If not, re-transmit the directive call. The priorities need to be placed on the execution of the directed action. All other mission tasks are secondary until the threat has been negated or defeated. The supporting fighter may be required to make a series of directive calls due to limited time. "Viper One, break right," "Viper One, jink now," "Viper One extend," if the supporting fighter has the tally and there is not time to describe the bandit's position without jeopardizing the safety of Viper One.
4.10.2.2. Descriptive Transmission
Descriptive transmission are normally prefaced by the call sign of the aircraft doing the talking, (i.e. "Viper One, tally bandit, left 10, 5 miles, level.") When a directive action is required the descriptive comm must come after the directive transmission and action is taken. Then, describe why you made the directive call. The bandit descriptive call is important for it will allow Viper One, in this example, to acquire the tally and perform the proper BFM to defend himself. The bandit call has been standardized into the following format, which should always be used:
· Call Sign.
· Type aircraft, or threat (Bandit /Bogey).
· Left or Right (side of aircraft.)
· Clock position.
· Range.
· High/ Low/ Level.
· Amplifying remarks.
Here’s an example of the above format: "Viper Two, bandit, right 2, 3 miles, high." A modification of this format is used to follow up a directive call if your element mate is under attack. Here’s an example: "Viper One, break, right," pause, as the directive action being taken, then continue with the descriptive comm: "Bandit, right, 5, 9,000’, level." In this case, the position of the bandit is described with reference to the aircraft under attack. Continue descriptive comm until the engaged fighter is tally. Sometimes subsequent descriptive calls may include the word "continue." This informs all flight members that the only reaction required is the maneuver that is being performed. For example Viper One calls, "Viper flight, hook right," "Viper One, bandit, right 4, 5 miles, slightly high, continue right."
4.10.3. Formation Integrity
Formation integrity is an integral part of all element maneuvering. In the ACM environment, formation integrity allows both the engaged and supporting fighters to maneuver synergistically to defeat the bandit‘s attack. Mutual support and formation integrity are critical to success. The engaged fighter must do his best one versus one BFM to kill or survive the bandit’s attack, while the supporting fighter maneuvers to kill the bandit or support the engaged fighter based on the criteria defined by the flight lead.
4.10.4. Flight Discipline
Flight discipline is an important factor effecting the success of fighter employment. This requires adherence to clearly defined responsibilities and decisions based on the flight lead’s overall game plan and philosophy of employment. The flight contract is fulfilled by executing your duties based on the flight lead’s plan (i.e. set of assumptions and guidelines). The flight lead can assess the success of the plan or failure and make changes to the plan. Obviously, no pilot should do anything to place himself or his wingman in a defensive situation. However, changing or ignoring the flight lead’s directions based on personnel preference is unacceptable!
4.10.5. Weapons Employment
Knowledge of your weapon system capabilities and limitation will allow you to make accurate decisions concerning weapons employment. You must apply your BFM skills to maneuver to a Weapons Employment Zone (WEZ) then effectively put weapons on target to kill. The status of your element mate and yourself will be affect your decision to maneuver immediately to a WEZ, defend, or reposition.
4.10.6. Engaged and Supporting Fighter Contract
Most units have "standards" that provide essential, clear, and unique procedures to: ensure success in training and combat sorties, minimize briefing time, clarify ambiguities, and establish a common point of reference. These "standards" need to be fully understood by every pilot in that unit. An effective "ACM Contract" assigns responsibilities between two aircraft that are essential to take full advantage of the element's capabilities during an air-to-air engagement. In the flight briefing it’s the flight lead’s responsibility to ensure complete understanding of the "ACM Contract." The division of responsibilities serves two basic purposes: killing the bandit and ensuring element survival. The ingredients required for successful execution of the "Contract" is mutual understanding of the game plan and a correct balance of communication, mutual support, executions of responsibilities, and weapons employment.
4.10.6.1. Engaged Fighter
During offensive maneuvering there can only be ONE actively engaged fighter (fighter that is maneuvering in specific relationship to the bandit) at a time. While defensive, the bandit will choose who is the engaged fighter. In a dynamic environment, such as air-to-air, the roles may change rapidly from one to the other several times. Flight members MUST fully understand their responsibilities and how they will be handed off, (whether by radio calls or aircraft maneuvers).
Engaged Fighter Responsibilities:
· Maneuver to kill the bandit (offensively) or negate the bandit’s attack (defensively) in the minimum
time. Fly your best offensive/defensive BFM.
· Clear the supporting fighter to engage if he is in a better position to shoot, or if defensive and the
engaged fighter is not safely outside the supporting fighter’s weapons FOV or target debris would be
factor, again clear the supporting fighter to shoot.
· Keep the supporting fighter informed of intentions, capabilities, and future tactical plans.
4.10.6.2. Supporting Fighter
As the supporting fighter you may have to perform two or more tasks/ responsibilities at the same time. Time sharing between the tasks at hand is required to effectively support the engaged fighter. The time allowed to perform a given set of tasks will be scenario dependent. As a rule of thumb (ROT) the supporting fighter needs to first maneuver to sanitize the area about the fight through visual (tally/visual) and electronic means (radar, GCI, RWR). Next be prepared to commit against any bandit that threatens the element, whether offensively or defensively. Lastly, maintain a high situational awareness to direct the egress in a safe direction.
Supporting Fighter Responsibilities:
· Maintain visual and strive for tally.
· Inform engaged fighter of posit (potential for mid-air in the ACM environment makes this extra comm
important)
· Sanitize the area about the fight through visual and electronic means (check your own six).
· Maneuver to avoid the fight and gain or maintain entry parameters on the bandit.
· Employ ordnance if the bandit is in a WEZ, consistent with the flight leads game plan, and without
compromising the engaged fighter’s safety.
· Engage other bandits that are a factor to the element and keep the engaged fighter informed.
· Maintain overall situational awareness to include area orientation, fuel, and exit avenues.
· Direct the egress.
4.10.7. The Flight Lead/Wingman Relationship
The previous discussion does not equate engaged and supporting roles with leader and wingman positions; this is intentional. Our tactics are designed to allow the best positioned fighter to engage the bandit offensively. While on defense, the driving factor for whom is engaged will obviously belong to the bandit. This should not imply break down within the basic flight lead/wingman responsibilities. The flight lead still has the ultimate responsibility for mission accomplishment and flight survival. The flight lead also makes the decisions about whether or not to engage, what tactics will be used, and who will do the engaging or separating. While the wingman is engaged, the flight lead supports him but retains the authority to direct the engagement, to terminate the engagement, to assume the engaged role, or to revert his wingman to the supporting role.
The engaged/supporting responsibilities work effectively in most 2 v 1 situations; however, when the contract breaks down, the flight may present a danger to itself. Confusion of roles is the most common problem. Two fighters, each thinking they are engaged, can easily end up occupying the same airspace. For this reason, flight and element leads will brief engaged and supporting responsibilities, maneuvering deconfliction, role changes and desired engaged communications prior to any flight with the potential for ACBT maneuvering. Element or wingman deconfliction subsequent to a blind call or planned loss of sight tactic will be briefed for any planned intercept or ACBT flight where more than one element or more than one fighter may be maneuvering against the same bandit or bandits. Elements/wingman will not begin visual offensive maneuvering against an adversary unless cleared to engage by the flight/element lead. Formal squadron/wing standards covering this requirement are adequate if all flight members are fully aware of the standards.
4.10.8. 2 V 1 Offensive Visual Maneuvering
The visual phase of maneuvering is really the "meat of the mission" where ACM is concerned. The tactical intercept gets the element to the merge, usually in an offensive position. Once there, our two airplanes must work together in accomplishing the primary goal which is to destroy the enemy ASAP, while maintaining mutual support. There must be complete understanding between the leader and wingman of their obligations towards one another. This understanding forms the basis of the contract which governs two-ship visual maneuvering.
The termination of the intercept phase is when the element arrives in position to begin visual maneuvering against the bandit. It is imperative that the element establish roles ASAP. The flight lead should transmit his intentions (i.e. "Viper 1, engaged, nose 3 miles.") This not only anchors the fight but establishes the engaged and supporting roles. If the bandit detects your attack and maneuvers to counter it, the tactical wingman may be in a better position to engage. If so the flight lead should direct the wingman to engage, (i.e. "Viper 2, cleared to engage bandit nose 3 miles, press.")
The engaged fighter needs to perform his best one versus one BFM, place the bandit in a WEZ as quickly as possible, and employ ordnance to kill the bandit. If the bandit negates your attack, continue to perform BFM forcing the bandit to react defensively and remain predictable. If you lose the offensive (i.e. neutral), due to bandit reaction, communicate this to the supporting fighter ASAP.
The supporting fighter needs to pick-up the supporting role, perform supporting fighter responsibilities, and setup the support structure. To set up the support structure the supporting fighter needs to off-set himself from the fight both horizontally and vertically. Fly BFM through the bandit’s TC while lagging the engaged fighter. Then extend past the fight. Ensure the afterburner has been selected to maintain 450 knots or greater and extend through the fight arena quickly build needed separation. No matter which plane you merge with the fight, stay there and continue to split plane in that direction, to visual constraints (i.e. if already high above the fight, stay there and not on or near the horizon). Maintain sight of the fight by placing it at your 7 - 9 o’clock or 5 - 3 o’clock whichever way is easiest to maintain sight with the fight once to the outside of the fight. Roll out wings level and extend for about 5 - 10 seconds and then check back into the fight with 4 - 6 G's. Be sure not to arc in a climbing turn since this will not allow you to gain the desired separation from the fight and will highlight you to the bandit. Fly straight lines and check turns to achieve your goal range of 2 to 3 miles with at least a 4000 foot altitude split between you and the fight. This range and altitude split from the fight will allow the supporting fighter time to radar and visually sanitize, and preserve maneuvering room for a shot of opportunity or a role change. Additionally, this position will make it hard for the bandit to acquire the supporting fighter and threaten him. Bandit maneuvering, visual acquisition, and environmental conditions must be taken into consideration.
Never place yourself in a position where you could become defensively engaged with the bandit that your flight member is engaged with (i.e. allow the bandit to point at you aft of your 3/9 line). That will not support killing the bandit and may get you killed. To avoid this put yourself in a position that will make it hard for the bandit to acquire you (split plane). Continue to maneuver away from the fight and sanitize the area for as long as the bandit's turn rate will allow. Visually confirm that the area around the fight is free from other bandits. A good technique is to first focus on an object at range (such as a mountain, or cloud). From there do a sector scan looking not for a specific aircraft, but movement. Force yourself to search not only along the horizon but high 12 and deep 6 o'clock as well. The radar should be in ACM with Slewable selected and biased to the outside of the fight or 20-mile scope minimum, with the el-strobe biased in the direction of the expected threat. After that volume of airspace has been sanitized, you are going to have to change the el-strobe to sanitize the remainder of the airspace. Listen closely to GCI for threat calls and sanitize that avenue of approach accordingly. Do not lose sight of the fight in the process. Time share between the supporting tasks is a must. As the bandit's extended 3 - 9 line approaches your jet (beam plan form), start a turn back into the fight to place it at left 10 or right 2- O’Clock, whichever way is easier to maintain sight. A bandit that is aware and maintains the tally on both fighters may fight the fighter in front of him as opposed to defending against the fighter at his 6- O’Clock. As the supporting fighter, you must ensure that the bandit doesn't engage you and force you to react defensively. The bandit's nose generally will telegraph his intent. The engaged fighter can also help by informing the supporting fighter of bandit maneuvers. If the bandit stops turning and points at you, maneuver to deny a WEZ. The range you are from the bandit will dictate either staying in the beam or checking into him to make it a 180 degree pass. Avoiding the engaged fighter with an altitude delta, as you extend through the fight, cannot be overemphasized. Power should be back and you should expend chaff and flares as needed. The bandit's extension towards you should provide a shot opportunity for the engaged fighter. If not, then continue with your supporting duties. However, if the bandit continues to turn defending himself against the engaged fighter, it should, based on range and aspect, offer a shot of opportunity, or a position from which an entry into the fight can be made if the engaged fighter needs your help.
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4.10. 空戰戰術 (ACM)
ACM normally involves coordinated maneuvering between two fighters employing BFM to kill ACM通常是兩個戰機之間的協調機動去幹掉敵人, defend or separate from one or more bandits in a visual merge在敵人的目視情況下進行攻防. The engaged phase can be the outcome of the intercept phase or an undetected bandit entry交戰的狀態結果可以是在攔截或是沒發現敵人的情況下決定, and is the highest risk phase of an air-to-air engagement 然而空對空戰鬥是個高風險的任務. Distinct roles 不同的角色, or an "ACM Contract" 或是ACM的約定, must be briefed and established between the two fighters prior to any flight with the potential for ACBT in order to assure effective ACM 為了有效率的執行ACM , 兩機之間的訓練與簡報必須要做好 . This contract defines "engaged" and "supporting" roles 這個合約定義攻擊與支援. Disciplined execution of these roles is critical for survivability and lethality 飛行員的嚴守紀律與執行將會是成敗的關鍵. Any break down in the established "ACM Contract" can lead to undesirable and disastrous outcomes! (i.e. Midair).
ACM normally involves coordinated maneuvering between two fighters employing BFM to kill, defend or separate from one or more bandits in a visual merge. The engaged phase can be the outcome of the intercept phase or an undetected bandit entry, and is the highest risk phase of an air-to-air engagement. Distinct roles, or an "ACM Contract," must be briefed and established between the two fighters prior to any flight with the potential for ACBT in order to assure effective ACM. This contract defines "engaged" and "supporting" roles. Disciplined execution of these roles is critical for survivability and lethality. Any break down in the established "ACM Contract" can lead to undesirable and disastrous outcomes! (i.e. Midair).
4.10.1. ACM Objectives
· Develop proficiency in two-ship coordinated maneuvering.
· Teach specific engaged and supporting fighter roles in a visual fight.
· Develop enhanced situation awareness.
An F-16 is capable of rapid kills from an offensive start. Consequently, the role of the supporting fighter is not the same when his element mate is offensive as when the other F-16 is defensive. This adjustment in priorities resulting from the other F-16's positional advantage/disadvantage requires focused, concentrated training in the visual environment. There are four cornerstones to effective element employment: communications, formation integrity, flight discipline, and weapons employment.
4.10.2. Communications
Calm, clear, and concise communications are vital for effective element employment. Each pilot must firmly understand MCM 3-1, Vol I brevity terms, unit standard terminology, and be able to use the correct terms at the correct moment in a fight. If the situation cannot be addressed using MCM 3-1 brevity or unit standard phrasing, use clear text to accurately describe your intentions or maneuvers. Proficiency in one’s communications skill is gained only by daily practice and constant critique. The time to start improving your comm is not after the first "Break right" call. The planned cadence, comm procedures, and brevity terms that are expect to be used during the flight should be reviewed in the flight briefing to enhance their effectiveness. Shortening communications too much is a bad habit that fighter pilots need to avoid. Nonstandard radio terminology (i.e. lack of proper call sign), and excessive verbiage can cause confusion and misinterpretation at a critical time. This could result be fatal. Use full call signs when beginning radio transmissions to gain the attention of flight members requiring the information you have
and allowing noninvolved flights to "tune out" your transmission. All missions (not just air-to-air) should focus on communications discipline!
As part of a fighting team, you will see situations develop quickly as you maneuver. As the bandit maneuvers you will have to communicate what you see in the most efficient way. As the wingman, you may have to tell lead what to do if you have tally and he doesn't. If your information isn't critical, your radio call should be descriptive and lead will use it to make decisions while maintaining control of the flight. When the flight is definitely threatened, a directive transmission is called for.
4.10.2.1. Directive Transmissions
A directive call is required when a threat warrants an immediate reaction for survival. Directive radio transmissions must be prefaced by the call sign of the aircraft being addressed, i.e., "Viper One, break right!" After making the directive transmission "Viper One, break right," pause, look and see if lead is doing what was directed. If not, re-transmit the directive call. The priorities need to be placed on the execution of the directed action. All other mission tasks are secondary until the threat has been negated or defeated. The supporting fighter may be required to make a series of directive calls due to limited time. "Viper One, break right," "Viper One, jink now," "Viper One extend," if the supporting fighter has the tally and there is not time to describe the bandit's position without jeopardizing the safety of Viper One.
4.10.2.2. Descriptive Transmission
Descriptive transmission are normally prefaced by the call sign of the aircraft doing the talking, (i.e. "Viper One, tally bandit, left 10, 5 miles, level.") When a directive action is required the descriptive comm must come after the directive transmission and action is taken. Then, describe why you made the directive call. The bandit descriptive call is important for it will allow Viper One, in this example, to acquire the tally and perform the proper BFM to defend himself. The bandit call has been standardized into the following format, which should always be used:
· Call Sign.
· Type aircraft, or threat (Bandit /Bogey).
· Left or Right (side of aircraft.)
· Clock position.
· Range.
· High/ Low/ Level.
· Amplifying remarks.
Here’s an example of the above format: "Viper Two, bandit, right 2, 3 miles, high." A modification of this format is used to follow up a directive call if your element mate is under attack. Here’s an example: "Viper One, break, right," pause, as the directive action being taken, then continue with the descriptive comm: "Bandit, right, 5, 9,000’, level." In this case, the position of the bandit is described with reference to the aircraft under attack. Continue descriptive comm until the engaged fighter is tally. Sometimes subsequent descriptive calls may include the word "continue." This informs all flight members that the only reaction required is the maneuver that is being performed. For example Viper One calls, "Viper flight, hook right," "Viper One, bandit, right 4, 5 miles, slightly high, continue right."
4.10.3. Formation Integrity
Formation integrity is an integral part of all element maneuvering. In the ACM environment, formation integrity allows both the engaged and supporting fighters to maneuver synergistically to defeat the bandit‘s attack. Mutual support and formation integrity are critical to success. The engaged fighter must do his best one versus one BFM to kill or survive the bandit’s attack, while the supporting fighter maneuvers to kill the bandit or support the engaged fighter based on the criteria defined by the flight lead.
4.10.4. Flight Discipline
Flight discipline is an important factor effecting the success of fighter employment. This requires adherence to clearly defined responsibilities and decisions based on the flight lead’s overall game plan and philosophy of employment. The flight contract is fulfilled by executing your duties based on the flight lead’s plan (i.e. set of assumptions and guidelines). The flight lead can assess the success of the plan or failure and make changes to the plan. Obviously, no pilot should do anything to place himself or his wingman in a defensive situation. However, changing or ignoring the flight lead’s directions based on personnel preference is unacceptable!
4.10.5. Weapons Employment
Knowledge of your weapon system capabilities and limitation will allow you to make accurate decisions concerning weapons employment. You must apply your BFM skills to maneuver to a Weapons Employment Zone (WEZ) then effectively put weapons on target to kill. The status of your element mate and yourself will be affect your decision to maneuver immediately to a WEZ, defend, or reposition.
4.10.6. Engaged and Supporting Fighter Contract
Most units have "standards" that provide essential, clear, and unique procedures to: ensure success in training and combat sorties, minimize briefing time, clarify ambiguities, and establish a common point of reference. These "standards" need to be fully understood by every pilot in that unit. An effective "ACM Contract" assigns responsibilities between two aircraft that are essential to take full advantage of the element's capabilities during an air-to-air engagement. In the flight briefing it’s the flight lead’s responsibility to ensure complete understanding of the "ACM Contract." The division of responsibilities serves two basic purposes: killing the bandit and ensuring element survival. The ingredients required for successful execution of the "Contract" is mutual understanding of the game plan and a correct balance of communication, mutual support, executions of responsibilities, and weapons employment.
4.10.6.1. Engaged Fighter
During offensive maneuvering there can only be ONE actively engaged fighter (fighter that is maneuvering in specific relationship to the bandit) at a time. While defensive, the bandit will choose who is the engaged fighter. In a dynamic environment, such as air-to-air, the roles may change rapidly from one to the other several times. Flight members MUST fully understand their responsibilities and how they will be handed off, (whether by radio calls or aircraft maneuvers).
Engaged Fighter Responsibilities:
· Maneuver to kill the bandit (offensively) or negate the bandit’s attack (defensively) in the minimum
time. Fly your best offensive/defensive BFM.
· Clear the supporting fighter to engage if he is in a better position to shoot, or if defensive and the
engaged fighter is not safely outside the supporting fighter’s weapons FOV or target debris would be
factor, again clear the supporting fighter to shoot.
· Keep the supporting fighter informed of intentions, capabilities, and future tactical plans.
4.10.6.2. Supporting Fighter
As the supporting fighter you may have to perform two or more tasks/ responsibilities at the same time. Time sharing between the tasks at hand is required to effectively support the engaged fighter. The time allowed to perform a given set of tasks will be scenario dependent. As a rule of thumb (ROT) the supporting fighter needs to first maneuver to sanitize the area about the fight through visual (tally/visual) and electronic means (radar, GCI, RWR). Next be prepared to commit against any bandit that threatens the element, whether offensively or defensively. Lastly, maintain a high situational awareness to direct the egress in a safe direction.
Supporting Fighter Responsibilities:
· Maintain visual and strive for tally.
· Inform engaged fighter of posit (potential for mid-air in the ACM environment makes this extra comm
important)
· Sanitize the area about the fight through visual and electronic means (check your own six).
· Maneuver to avoid the fight and gain or maintain entry parameters on the bandit.
· Employ ordnance if the bandit is in a WEZ, consistent with the flight leads game plan, and without
compromising the engaged fighter’s safety.
· Engage other bandits that are a factor to the element and keep the engaged fighter informed.
· Maintain overall situational awareness to include area orientation, fuel, and exit avenues.
· Direct the egress.
4.10.7. The Flight Lead/Wingman Relationship
The previous discussion does not equate engaged and supporting roles with leader and wingman positions; this is intentional. Our tactics are designed to allow the best positioned fighter to engage the bandit offensively. While on defense, the driving factor for whom is engaged will obviously belong to the bandit. This should not imply break down within the basic flight lead/wingman responsibilities. The flight lead still has the ultimate responsibility for mission accomplishment and flight survival. The flight lead also makes the decisions about whether or not to engage, what tactics will be used, and who will do the engaging or separating. While the wingman is engaged, the flight lead supports him but retains the authority to direct the engagement, to terminate the engagement, to assume the engaged role, or to revert his wingman to the supporting role.
The engaged/supporting responsibilities work effectively in most 2 v 1 situations; however, when the contract breaks down, the flight may present a danger to itself. Confusion of roles is the most common problem. Two fighters, each thinking they are engaged, can easily end up occupying the same airspace. For this reason, flight and element leads will brief engaged and supporting responsibilities, maneuvering deconfliction, role changes and desired engaged communications prior to any flight with the potential for ACBT maneuvering. Element or wingman deconfliction subsequent to a blind call or planned loss of sight tactic will be briefed for any planned intercept or ACBT flight where more than one element or more than one fighter may be maneuvering against the same bandit or bandits. Elements/wingman will not begin visual offensive maneuvering against an adversary unless cleared to engage by the flight/element lead. Formal squadron/wing standards covering this requirement are adequate if all flight members are fully aware of the standards.
4.10.8. 2 V 1 Offensive Visual Maneuvering
The visual phase of maneuvering is really the "meat of the mission" where ACM is concerned. The tactical intercept gets the element to the merge, usually in an offensive position. Once there, our two airplanes must work together in accomplishing the primary goal which is to destroy the enemy ASAP, while maintaining mutual support. There must be complete understanding between the leader and wingman of their obligations towards one another. This understanding forms the basis of the contract which governs two-ship visual maneuvering.
The termination of the intercept phase is when the element arrives in position to begin visual maneuvering against the bandit. It is imperative that the element establish roles ASAP. The flight lead should transmit his intentions (i.e. "Viper 1, engaged, nose 3 miles.") This not only anchors the fight but establishes the engaged and supporting roles. If the bandit detects your attack and maneuvers to counter it, the tactical wingman may be in a better position to engage. If so the flight lead should direct the wingman to engage, (i.e. "Viper 2, cleared to engage bandit nose 3 miles, press.")
The engaged fighter needs to perform his best one versus one BFM, place the bandit in a WEZ as quickly as possible, and employ ordnance to kill the bandit. If the bandit negates your attack, continue to perform BFM forcing the bandit to react defensively and remain predictable. If you lose the offensive (i.e. neutral), due to bandit reaction, communicate this to the supporting fighter ASAP.
The supporting fighter needs to pick-up the supporting role, perform supporting fighter responsibilities, and setup the support structure. To set up the support structure the supporting fighter needs to off-set himself from the fight both horizontally and vertically. Fly BFM through the bandit’s TC while lagging the engaged fighter. Then extend past the fight. Ensure the afterburner has been selected to maintain 450 knots or greater and extend through the fight arena quickly build needed separation. No matter which plane you merge with the fight, stay there and continue to split plane in that direction, to visual constraints (i.e. if already high above the fight, stay there and not on or near the horizon). Maintain sight of the fight by placing it at your 7 - 9 o’clock or 5 - 3 o’clock whichever way is easiest to maintain sight with the fight once to the outside of the fight. Roll out wings level and extend for about 5 - 10 seconds and then check back into the fight with 4 - 6 G's. Be sure not to arc in a climbing turn since this will not allow you to gain the desired separation from the fight and will highlight you to the bandit. Fly straight lines and check turns to achieve your goal range of 2 to 3 miles with at least a 4000 foot altitude split between you and the fight. This range and altitude split from the fight will allow the supporting fighter time to radar and visually sanitize, and preserve maneuvering room for a shot of opportunity or a role change. Additionally, this position will make it hard for the bandit to acquire the supporting fighter and threaten him. Bandit maneuvering, visual acquisition, and environmental conditions must be taken into consideration.
Never place yourself in a position where you could become defensively engaged with the bandit that your flight member is engaged with (i.e. allow the bandit to point at you aft of your 3/9 line). That will not support killing the bandit and may get you killed. To avoid this put yourself in a position that will make it hard for the bandit to acquire you (split plane). Continue to maneuver away from the fight and sanitize the area for as long as the bandit's turn rate will allow. Visually confirm that the area around the fight is free from other bandits. A good technique is to first focus on an object at range (such as a mountain, or cloud). From there do a sector scan looking not for a specific aircraft, but movement. Force yourself to search not only along the horizon but high 12 and deep 6 o'clock as well. The radar should be in ACM with Slewable selected and biased to the outside of the fight or 20-mile scope minimum, with the el-strobe biased in the direction of the expected threat. After that volume of airspace has been sanitized, you are going to have to change the el-strobe to sanitize the remainder of the airspace. Listen closely to GCI for threat calls and sanitize that avenue of approach accordingly. Do not lose sight of the fight in the process. Time share between the supporting tasks is a must. As the bandit's extended 3 - 9 line approaches your jet (beam plan form), start a turn back into the fight to place it at left 10 or right 2- O’Clock, whichever way is easier to maintain sight. A bandit that is aware and maintains the tally on both fighters may fight the fighter in front of him as opposed to defending against the fighter at his 6- O’Clock. As the supporting fighter, you must ensure that the bandit doesn't engage you and force you to react defensively. The bandit's nose generally will telegraph his intent. The engaged fighter can also help by informing the supporting fighter of bandit maneuvers. If the bandit stops turning and points at you, maneuver to deny a WEZ. The range you are from the bandit will dictate either staying in the beam or checking into him to make it a 180 degree pass. Avoiding the engaged fighter with an altitude delta, as you extend through the fight, cannot be overemphasized. Power should be back and you should expend chaff and flares as needed. The bandit's extension towards you should provide a shot opportunity for the engaged fighter. If not, then continue with your supporting duties. However, if the bandit continues to turn defending himself against the engaged fighter, it should, based on range and aspect, offer a shot of opportunity, or a position from which an entry into the fight can be made if the engaged fighter needs your help.
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4.10. 空戰戰術 (ACM)
ACM normally involves coordinated maneuvering between two fighters employing BFM to kill ACM通常是兩個戰機之間的協調機動去幹掉敵人, defend or separate from one or more bandits in a visual merge在敵人的目視情況下進行攻防. The engaged phase can be the outcome of the intercept phase or an undetected bandit entry交戰的狀態結果可以是在攔截或是沒發現敵人的情況下決定, and is the highest risk phase of an air-to-air engagement 然而空對空戰鬥是個高風險的任務. Distinct roles 不同的角色, or an "ACM Contract" 或是ACM的約定, must be briefed and established between the two fighters prior to any flight with the potential for ACBT in order to assure effective ACM 為了有效率的執行ACM , 兩機之間的訓練與簡報必須要做好 . This contract defines "engaged" and "supporting" roles 這個合約定義攻擊與支援. Disciplined execution of these roles is critical for survivability and lethality 飛行員的嚴守紀律與執行將會是成敗的關鍵. Any break down in the established "ACM Contract" can lead to undesirable and disastrous outcomes! (i.e. Midair).
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