4.10. Air Combat Maneuvers (ACM)
ACM normally involves coordinated maneuvering between two fighters employing BFM to kill, defend or separate from one or more bandits in a visual merge. The engaged phase can be the outcome of the intercept phase or an undetected bandit entry, and is the highest risk phase of an air-to-air engagement. Distinct roles, or an "ACM Contract," must be briefed and established between the two fighters prior to any flight with the potential for ACBT in order to assure effective ACM. This contract defines "engaged" and "supporting" roles. Disciplined execution of these roles is critical for survivability and lethality. Any break down in the established "ACM Contract" can lead to undesirable and disastrous outcomes! (i.e. Midair).
4.10.1. ACM Objectives
· Develop proficiency in two-ship coordinated maneuvering.
· Teach specific engaged and supporting fighter roles in a visual fight.
· Develop enhanced situation awareness.
An F-16 is capable of rapid kills from an offensive start. Consequently, the role of the supporting fighter is not the same when his element mate is offensive as when the other F-16 is defensive. This adjustment in priorities resulting from the other F-16's positional advantage/disadvantage requires focused, concentrated training in the visual environment. There are four cornerstones to effective element employment: communications, formation integrity, flight discipline, and weapons employment.
4.10.2. Communications
Calm, clear, and concise communications are vital for effective element employment. Each pilot must firmly understand MCM 3-1, Vol I brevity terms, unit standard terminology, and be able to use the correct terms at the correct moment in a fight. If the situation cannot be addressed using MCM 3-1 brevity or unit standard phrasing, use clear text to accurately describe your intentions or maneuvers. Proficiency in one’s communications skill is gained only by daily practice and constant critique. The time to start improving your comm is not after the first "Break right" call. The planned cadence, comm procedures, and brevity terms that are expect to be used during the flight should be reviewed in the flight briefing to enhance their effectiveness. Shortening communications too much is a bad habit that fighter pilots need to avoid. Nonstandard radio terminology (i.e. lack of proper call sign), and excessive verbiage can cause confusion and misinterpretation at a critical time. This could result be fatal. Use full call signs when beginning radio transmissions to gain the attention of flight members requiring the information you have
and allowing noninvolved flights to "tune out" your transmission. All missions (not just air-to-air) should focus on communications discipline!
As part of a fighting team, you will see situations develop quickly as you maneuver. As the bandit maneuvers you will have to communicate what you see in the most efficient way. As the wingman, you may have to tell lead what to do if you have tally and he doesn't. If your information isn't critical, your radio call should be descriptive and lead will use it to make decisions while maintaining control of the flight. When the flight is definitely threatened, a directive transmission is called for.
4.10.2.1. Directive Transmissions
A directive call is required when a threat warrants an immediate reaction for survival. Directive radio transmissions must be prefaced by the call sign of the aircraft being addressed, i.e., "Viper One, break right!" After making the directive transmission "Viper One, break right," pause, look and see if lead is doing what was directed. If not, re-transmit the directive call. The priorities need to be placed on the execution of the directed action. All other mission tasks are secondary until the threat has been negated or defeated. The supporting fighter may be required to make a series of directive calls due to limited time. "Viper One, break right," "Viper One, jink now," "Viper One extend," if the supporting fighter has the tally and there is not time to describe the bandit's position without jeopardizing the safety of Viper One.
4.10.2.2. Descriptive Transmission
Descriptive transmission are normally prefaced by the call sign of the aircraft doing the talking, (i.e. "Viper One, tally bandit, left 10, 5 miles, level.") When a directive action is required the descriptive comm must come after the directive transmission and action is taken. Then, describe why you made the directive call. The bandit descriptive call is important for it will allow Viper One, in this example, to acquire the tally and perform the proper BFM to defend himself. The bandit call has been standardized into the following format, which should always be used:
· Call Sign.
· Type aircraft, or threat (Bandit /Bogey).
· Left or Right (side of aircraft.)
· Clock position.
· Range.
· High/ Low/ Level.
· Amplifying remarks.
Here’s an example of the above format: "Viper Two, bandit, right 2, 3 miles, high." A modification of this format is used to follow up a directive call if your element mate is under attack. Here’s an example: "Viper One, break, right," pause, as the directive action being taken, then continue with the descriptive comm: "Bandit, right, 5, 9,000’, level." In this case, the position of the bandit is described with reference to the aircraft under attack. Continue descriptive comm until the engaged fighter is tally. Sometimes subsequent descriptive calls may include the word "continue." This informs all flight members that the only reaction required is the maneuver that is being performed. For example Viper One calls, "Viper flight, hook right," "Viper One, bandit, right 4, 5 miles, slightly high, continue right."
4.10.3. Formation Integrity
Formation integrity is an integral part of all element maneuvering. In the ACM environment, formation integrity allows both the engaged and supporting fighters to maneuver synergistically to defeat the bandit‘s attack. Mutual support and formation integrity are critical to success. The engaged fighter must do his best one versus one BFM to kill or survive the bandit’s attack, while the supporting fighter maneuvers to kill the bandit or support the engaged fighter based on the criteria defined by the flight lead.
4.10.4. Flight Discipline
Flight discipline is an important factor effecting the success of fighter employment. This requires adherence to clearly defined responsibilities and decisions based on the flight lead’s overall game plan and philosophy of employment. The flight contract is fulfilled by executing your duties based on the flight lead’s plan (i.e. set of assumptions and guidelines). The flight lead can assess the success of the plan or failure and make changes to the plan. Obviously, no pilot should do anything to place himself or his wingman in a defensive situation. However, changing or ignoring the flight lead’s directions based on personnel preference is unacceptable!
4.10.5. Weapons Employment
Knowledge of your weapon system capabilities and limitation will allow you to make accurate decisions concerning weapons employment. You must apply your BFM skills to maneuver to a Weapons Employment Zone (WEZ) then effectively put weapons on target to kill. The status of your element mate and yourself will be affect your decision to maneuver immediately to a WEZ, defend, or reposition.
4.10.6. Engaged and Supporting Fighter Contract
Most units have "standards" that provide essential, clear, and unique procedures to: ensure success in training and combat sorties, minimize briefing time, clarify ambiguities, and establish a common point of reference. These "standards" need to be fully understood by every pilot in that unit. An effective "ACM Contract" assigns responsibilities between two aircraft that are essential to take full advantage of the element's capabilities during an air-to-air engagement. In the flight briefing it’s the flight lead’s responsibility to ensure complete understanding of the "ACM Contract." The division of responsibilities serves two basic purposes: killing the bandit and ensuring element survival. The ingredients required for successful execution of the "Contract" is mutual understanding of the game plan and a correct balance of communication, mutual support, executions of responsibilities, and weapons employment.
4.10.6.1. Engaged Fighter
During offensive maneuvering there can only be ONE actively engaged fighter (fighter that is maneuvering in specific relationship to the bandit) at a time. While defensive, the bandit will choose who is the engaged fighter. In a dynamic environment, such as air-to-air, the roles may change rapidly from one to the other several times. Flight members MUST fully understand their responsibilities and how they will be handed off, (whether by radio calls or aircraft maneuvers).
Engaged Fighter Responsibilities:
· Maneuver to kill the bandit (offensively) or negate the bandit’s attack (defensively) in the minimum
time. Fly your best offensive/defensive BFM.
· Clear the supporting fighter to engage if he is in a better position to shoot, or if defensive and the
engaged fighter is not safely outside the supporting fighter’s weapons FOV or target debris would be
factor, again clear the supporting fighter to shoot.
· Keep the supporting fighter informed of intentions, capabilities, and future tactical plans.
4.10.6.2. Supporting Fighter
As the supporting fighter you may have to perform two or more tasks/ responsibilities at the same time. Time sharing between the tasks at hand is required to effectively support the engaged fighter. The time allowed to perform a given set of tasks will be scenario dependent. As a rule of thumb (ROT) the supporting fighter needs to first maneuver to sanitize the area about the fight through visual (tally/visual) and electronic means (radar, GCI, RWR). Next be prepared to commit against any bandit that threatens the element, whether offensively or defensively. Lastly, maintain a high situational awareness to direct the egress in a safe direction.
Supporting Fighter Responsibilities:
· Maintain visual and strive for tally.
· Inform engaged fighter of posit (potential for mid-air in the ACM environment makes this extra comm
important)
· Sanitize the area about the fight through visual and electronic means (check your own six).
· Maneuver to avoid the fight and gain or maintain entry parameters on the bandit.
· Employ ordnance if the bandit is in a WEZ, consistent with the flight leads game plan, and without
compromising the engaged fighter’s safety.
· Engage other bandits that are a factor to the element and keep the engaged fighter informed.
· Maintain overall situational awareness to include area orientation, fuel, and exit avenues.
· Direct the egress.
4.10.7. The Flight Lead/Wingman Relationship
The previous discussion does not equate engaged and supporting roles with leader and wingman positions; this is intentional. Our tactics are designed to allow the best positioned fighter to engage the bandit offensively. While on defense, the driving factor for whom is engaged will obviously belong to the bandit. This should not imply break down within the basic flight lead/wingman responsibilities. The flight lead still has the ultimate responsibility for mission accomplishment and flight survival. The flight lead also makes the decisions about whether or not to engage, what tactics will be used, and who will do the engaging or separating. While the wingman is engaged, the flight lead supports him but retains the authority to direct the engagement, to terminate the engagement, to assume the engaged role, or to revert his wingman to the supporting role.
The engaged/supporting responsibilities work effectively in most 2 v 1 situations; however, when the contract breaks down, the flight may present a danger to itself. Confusion of roles is the most common problem. Two fighters, each thinking they are engaged, can easily end up occupying the same airspace. For this reason, flight and element leads will brief engaged and supporting responsibilities, maneuvering deconfliction, role changes and desired engaged communications prior to any flight with the potential for ACBT maneuvering. Element or wingman deconfliction subsequent to a blind call or planned loss of sight tactic will be briefed for any planned intercept or ACBT flight where more than one element or more than one fighter may be maneuvering against the same bandit or bandits. Elements/wingman will not begin visual offensive maneuvering against an adversary unless cleared to engage by the flight/element lead. Formal squadron/wing standards covering this requirement are adequate if all flight members are fully aware of the standards.
4.10.8. 2 V 1 Offensive Visual Maneuvering
The visual phase of maneuvering is really the "meat of the mission" where ACM is concerned. The tactical intercept gets the element to the merge, usually in an offensive position. Once there, our two airplanes must work together in accomplishing the primary goal which is to destroy the enemy ASAP, while maintaining mutual support. There must be complete understanding between the leader and wingman of their obligations towards one another. This understanding forms the basis of the contract which governs two-ship visual maneuvering.
The termination of the intercept phase is when the element arrives in position to begin visual maneuvering against the bandit. It is imperative that the element establish roles ASAP. The flight lead should transmit his intentions (i.e. "Viper 1, engaged, nose 3 miles.") This not only anchors the fight but establishes the engaged and supporting roles. If the bandit detects your attack and maneuvers to counter it, the tactical wingman may be in a better position to engage. If so the flight lead should direct the wingman to engage, (i.e. "Viper 2, cleared to engage bandit nose 3 miles, press.")
The engaged fighter needs to perform his best one versus one BFM, place the bandit in a WEZ as quickly as possible, and employ ordnance to kill the bandit. If the bandit negates your attack, continue to perform BFM forcing the bandit to react defensively and remain predictable. If you lose the offensive (i.e. neutral), due to bandit reaction, communicate this to the supporting fighter ASAP.
The supporting fighter needs to pick-up the supporting role, perform supporting fighter responsibilities, and setup the support structure. To set up the support structure the supporting fighter needs to off-set himself from the fight both horizontally and vertically. Fly BFM through the bandit’s TC while lagging the engaged fighter. Then extend past the fight. Ensure the afterburner has been selected to maintain 450 knots or greater and extend through the fight arena quickly build needed separation. No matter which plane you merge with the fight, stay there and continue to split plane in that direction, to visual constraints (i.e. if already high above the fight, stay there and not on or near the horizon). Maintain sight of the fight by placing it at your 7 - 9 o’clock or 5 - 3 o’clock whichever way is easiest to maintain sight with the fight once to the outside of the fight. Roll out wings level and extend for about 5 - 10 seconds and then check back into the fight with 4 - 6 G's. Be sure not to arc in a climbing turn since this will not allow you to gain the desired separation from the fight and will highlight you to the bandit. Fly straight lines and check turns to achieve your goal range of 2 to 3 miles with at least a 4000 foot altitude split between you and the fight. This range and altitude split from the fight will allow the supporting fighter time to radar and visually sanitize, and preserve maneuvering room for a shot of opportunity or a role change. Additionally, this position will make it hard for the bandit to acquire the supporting fighter and threaten him. Bandit maneuvering, visual acquisition, and environmental conditions must be taken into consideration.
Never place yourself in a position where you could become defensively engaged with the bandit that your flight member is engaged with (i.e. allow the bandit to point at you aft of your 3/9 line). That will not support killing the bandit and may get you killed. To avoid this put yourself in a position that will make it hard for the bandit to acquire you (split plane). Continue to maneuver away from the fight and sanitize the area for as long as the bandit's turn rate will allow. Visually confirm that the area around the fight is free from other bandits. A good technique is to first focus on an object at range (such as a mountain, or cloud). From there do a sector scan looking not for a specific aircraft, but movement. Force yourself to search not only along the horizon but high 12 and deep 6 o'clock as well. The radar should be in ACM with Slewable selected and biased to the outside of the fight or 20-mile scope minimum, with the el-strobe biased in the direction of the expected threat. After that volume of airspace has been sanitized, you are going to have to change the el-strobe to sanitize the remainder of the airspace. Listen closely to GCI for threat calls and sanitize that avenue of approach accordingly. Do not lose sight of the fight in the process. Time share between the supporting tasks is a must. As the bandit's extended 3 - 9 line approaches your jet (beam plan form), start a turn back into the fight to place it at left 10 or right 2- O’Clock, whichever way is easier to maintain sight. A bandit that is aware and maintains the tally on both fighters may fight the fighter in front of him as opposed to defending against the fighter at his 6- O’Clock. As the supporting fighter, you must ensure that the bandit doesn't engage you and force you to react defensively. The bandit's nose generally will telegraph his intent. The engaged fighter can also help by informing the supporting fighter of bandit maneuvers. If the bandit stops turning and points at you, maneuver to deny a WEZ. The range you are from the bandit will dictate either staying in the beam or checking into him to make it a 180 degree pass. Avoiding the engaged fighter with an altitude delta, as you extend through the fight, cannot be overemphasized. Power should be back and you should expend chaff and flares as needed. The bandit's extension towards you should provide a shot opportunity for the engaged fighter. If not, then continue with your supporting duties. However, if the bandit continues to turn defending himself against the engaged fighter, it should, based on range and aspect, offer a shot of opportunity, or a position from which an entry into the fight can be made if the engaged fighter needs your help.
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4.10. 空戰戰術 (ACM)
ACM normally involves coordinated maneuvering between two fighters employing BFM to kill ACM通常是兩個戰機之間的協調機動去幹掉敵人, defend or separate from one or more bandits in a visual merge在敵人的目視情況下進行攻防. The engaged phase can be the outcome of the intercept phase or an undetected bandit entry交戰的狀態結果可以是在攔截或是沒發現敵人的情況下決定, and is the highest risk phase of an air-to-air engagement 然而空對空戰鬥是個高風險的任務. Distinct roles 不同的角色, or an "ACM Contract" 或是ACM的約定, must be briefed and established between the two fighters prior to any flight with the potential for ACBT in order to assure effective ACM 為了有效率的執行ACM , 兩機之間的訓練與簡報必須要做好 . This contract defines "engaged" and "supporting" roles 這個合約定義攻擊與支援. Disciplined execution of these roles is critical for survivability and lethality 飛行員的嚴守紀律與執行將會是成敗的關鍵. Any break down in the established "ACM Contract" can lead to undesirable and disastrous outcomes! (i.e. Midair).
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